Studies have found links between the ingestion of barium and unwanted effects on blood pressure in animals and humans. Results from epidemiological studies are limited either by their small sample sizes, short durations of exposure, poor exposure characterization, inadequate controlling of important risk factors for hypertension, or a combination thereof. Barite is also used as a contrast agent to improve the visibility of certain organs in X-ray diagnostic tests; in the chemical sector it is used in plastic and rubber products, paints, glass, carpets, ceramics, sealants, furniture, cement vessels, superconducting films, and nuclear reactors (Dumont, 2007; CCME, 2013). In mice, no chemical-related deaths, differences in mean body weights and water consumption, or clinical/histopathological evidence of toxicity were observed; in the highest dose group, relative liver weight of males and absolute and relative liver weights of females were significantly higher than those of the controls. Barium is a divalent cation and alkaline earth metal that can be found in naturally occurring mineral deposits. The Water Quality Association is calling attention to the growing problem of counterfeit water filters by joining forces with the National Intellectual Property Rights Coordination Center (IPR Center). In treated groundwater, 567 out of 1,683 samples were below the DL; the mean was 90 µg/L, the median was 60 µg/L and the maximum level detected was 700 µg/L. When water quality changes or physical disruptions occur in the system, the release of barium and other contaminants may be indicated by the presence of discoloured water or increased turbidity resulting from the release of deposits or scales present on the pipe wall. Human health risk assessment for priority substances. *Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) — The highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in drinking water. Vol. Barium is a white liquid that shows up clearly on an x-ray. Mutat. (1987b) indicated that the use of the SAC (Ca2+) resin in parallel with SAC (Na+) may produce treated water with the desired level of hardness in addition to barium removal. Phys. However, regenerating the resin with a dose of 7.6 mEq HCl/g resin (i.e., 66% of the stoichiometric amount) produced higher barium concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 1.3 mg/L in the treated water as a result of incomplete removal of barium from the resin during the regeneration cycles (Snyder et al., 1986). The available information on barium has been assessed with the intent of establishing a drinking water guideline and guideline technical document. In humans, effects have been observed on the kidneys following exposure to high levels of barium in poisoning events; in animals, kidney effects are considered the most sensitive health effect associated with long-term ingestion of barium, especially in mice, the most sensitive species. Res., 76 (1): 53–59. and Heard, K. (2009). Ii is very light and its density is half that of iron. Precipitative removal of As, Ba, B, Cr, Sr and V using sodium carbonate, ASCE J. Environ. Experimental evaluation of conical-cylindrical thickeners operating with aqueous barium sulfate suspensions. Industrial methods for the production of optically active intermediates. Certification organizations provide assurance that a product conforms to applicable standards and must be accredited by the Standards Council of Canada (SCC). Am. (2014). Barium toxicity and the role of the potassium inward rectifier current. Res. The authors suggested that the similar absorption efficiencies may be attributed to the solubilization of the low dose of barium sulphate by hydrochloric acid in the stomach. In treated groundwater, the mean level found was 111 µg/L, the median was 54 µg/L and the maximum was 1,300 µg/L. Rats receiving 10 mg /L of barium as barium sulphate by intubation exhibited peak barium blood levels 15 min after dosing, with 50% remaining in the blood 4 h post exposure (McCauley and Washington, 1983). Varying amounts of barium can be dissolved as water passes through rocks and soils and be present in groundwater. Edzwald, J.K. However, more than 20 isotopes have been identified, most of them being highly radioactive and with half-lives ranging from several milliseconds to several minutes (WHO, 1990; Boffito, 1991; U.S. EPA, 2005). Available at: www.scc.ca/en/accreditation/product-process-and-service-certification/directory-of-accredited-clients. Programs and policy development – Health Canada, Part II. Leaching of barium from cement-mortar linings can result in the precipitation of BaCO3 and BaSO4 in the distribution system (Friedman et al., 2010). 4.4 and SM 3120B (U.S. EPA, 1994, Inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES), Subject to spectral, physical, chemical and memory interferences. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/0471238961.0201180904090205.a01.pub2/pdf. Barium Sulfate is made up of two components: a barium cation and the sulfate anion. (2016). Med. APHA, AWWA and WEF (2012). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 18th edition. American Water Works Association. Manage., 134(10): 28–31. Barium sulfide poisoning. Barium was the most concentrated inorganic contaminant detected in scale samples and sediments collected from the distribution systems of 20 U.S. drinking water utilities supplied by groundwater, surface water and blended water sources (Friedman et al., 2010; Peng et al., 2012). Barium is released to water and soil in the discharge and disposal of drilling wastes, from the smelting of copper, and the manufacture of motor vehicle parts and accessories. Intoxication by large amounts of barium nitrate overcome by early massive K supplementation and oral administration of magnesium sulphate. APHA, AWWA and WEF (1992). Protein kinase d mediates mitochondrion-to-nucleus signaling and detoxification from mitochondrial reactive oxygen species. Barium in the air is associated with particulate matter and mainly occurs in insoluble forms (e.g., sulphate) (Kravchenko et al., 2014). In aqueous environments, barium typically exists in divalent form as Ba2+. Barite and witherite are two commercial barium compounds widespread throughout Canada, with more than 150 deposits identified and four main orebodies (Giant Mascot and Mineral King in BC; Buchans in NL; and Walton in NS) (CCME, 2013). Yesilada (2001) reported increases in small single wing spots (the wing spot test is indicative of somatic mutations) in Drosophila melanogaster exposed to high concentrations of barium nitrate (10 mM), but not at lower concentrations (1 mM). The European Union has not established a limit for barium in drinking water. Barium is a naturally occurring alkaline metalloid element with atomic symbol Ba, atomic number 56, and atomic weight 137 that is only found in combination with other elements, typically barite (barium sulfate) and witherite (barium carbonate), or chemicals. (2016). (2012b). The Geological Survey of Canada reported a mean concentration in Canadian soil of 140 mg/kg (SD = 120; n = 7,397) (CCME, 2013). National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. Barium sulphate can be problematic for any drinking water treatment methods that concentrate barium (Boerlage et al., 2000; Ning et al., 2006; Gabelich et al., 2007; WQA, 2014). Also, statistically significant decreases in hepatocellular adenoma were observed in male mice. The acute responses can progress to increased blood pressure, progressive muscular paralysis, cardiovascular and respiratory failure, and even death (Downs et al., 1995; Jourdan et al., 2001; Bhoelan et al., 2014). Tang, J. and Johannesson, K.H. Any change in water quality should not result in other compliance issues. 25(19): 8520–8530. However, an influent barium concentration of 0.9 mg/L was reduced by only 30% and 67% after 1 and 3 h, respectively. Barium reacts with water to make barium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Acad. The hydrogen form of strong-acid cation and weak-acid cation exchange resins must be followed by a carbon dioxide stripping process and a pH or alkalinity adjustment step to reduce the corrosivity of the product water. A NOAEL of 180 mg/kg bw per day for rats and 205 mg/kg bw per day for mice can be identified from this study. (2016) tested an adsorptive zeolite 4A medium for barium removal in batch experiments using feed water with barium concentrations of from 0.3 mmol (41.1 mg/L) to 25 mmol (3,432 mg/L) at pH levels of 8.2–11.0. In rats, pregnancy rates were below historically normal values for the laboratory; however, they were not treatment related. Aoun, M., Plasari, E., David, R. and Villermaux, J. In a study investigating the protective effects of pomegranate peel against barium- mediated kidney damage, a single group of six adult Wistar rats exposed to barium chloride (67 ppm, equivalent to 10 mg/kg bw per day, as reported by the study authors) for 21 days reduced creatinine clearance (indicator of glomerular dysfunction) compared with controls (Elwej et al., 2016a). Gynaecol., 31(7): 586–588. Conventional coagulation/filtration techniques showed low barium removal from drinking water (up to 30%). Therefore, SAC (Ca2+ and H+) and WAC (H+) resins are alternatives that can be used for the production of sodium-free treated water. In addition, the high chemical doses used would affect the cost and sludge production. Bhoelan, B. S., Stevering, C. H., van der Boog, A. T. J. and van der Heyden, M. A. G. (2014). It is a crystalline solid white in colour which is insoluble in water and alcohol but soluble in concentrated acids. As such, the current protocol may underestimate total barium in drinking water when particulate barium is present. Toxicol., 33(2): 173–175. Barium and barium compounds. Appl. Updated tables, February. Under certain conditions, barium may form mineral precipitates involving sulphate, carbonate or chromate (Friedman et al., 2010). Environment Monitoring Systems Laboratories, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. In rats administered barium chloride via gavage, younger rats (14–22 days old) absorbed barium more efficiently than older animals (6–70 weeks old) (i.e., 63–84% in young animals versus 7–8% in older rats) (Taylor et al., 1962). NSF International/American National Standards Institute, Ann Arbor, Michigan. EPA 600-M-86-021. Sci., 301(1–2): 131–141. Mutat. WHO (1990). Monitoring for barium should be done in conjunction with other metals that can co-occur in the distribution system (e.g., iron, manganese, arsenic, lead). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency concluded that barium is not likely to be carcinogenic to humans from exposure through ingestion; other international agencies agree that there is no evidence showing that exposure to barium through ingestion could cause cancer. Available data indicate that kidney toxicity may be associated with oxidative processes. Determination of metals and trace elements in water and wastes by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. In the 15-month interim evaluation, urea nitrogen levels were elevated in mice of all dosage groups (although the finding was not statistically significant, according to the authors) indicating that some animals were beginning to experience changes in kidney function consistent with the observed pathology, even at the lower doses. Treatment with Mg(OH)2 powder reduced a barium concentration from 0.9 mg/L to 0.34 mg/L in the concentrate (64% reduction) within 1 h of processing time at a pH range of 7.8–9.1 but did not provide sufficient silica reduction (only 16%). PEI Department of Communities, Land and Environment (2017). Pretreatment is required to preserve membrane life because the presence of chlorine residuals, particulates, and scale-forming ions (i.e., Ca2+, Ba2+, iron, and silica) in the feed water can adversely affect the performance of RO processes. A small, single-site case–control study reported that barium was among the metals that were reported to be elevated in the hair (p = 0.003) and urine (p = 0.002) of 25 children (mean age of 5 years) with autism spectrum disorder in Saudi Arabia compared with 25 non-autistic children matched for age and sex. It should be noted that using SAC (Na+) resins may result in undesirable quantities of sodium in the treated water. In rats, no chemically related effects were observed at any dose. Crystalline Barium-titanate is a ceramic compound which is used in capacitors and transducers. Moreover, there was no evidence of teratogenicity in babies (n = 5) born to mothers who were inadvertently exposed to barium via enema (Han et al., 2010). In raw well water samples (n = 35), the mean concentration of barium was 103 µg/L, the median was 52 µg/L and the maximum was 500 µg/L. The plant 1 treatment run was terminated before either hardness or barium achieved breakthrough. Chellan, P. and Sadler, P.J. For example, Magnesium reacts with water to form Magnesium Hydroxide and Hydrogen gas in the following equation: (ed). Stable barium sulphate supersaturation in reverse osmosis. Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship (2017). J., 83: 25–29. Chronic Dis., 25: 491–517. Poisoning by barium carbonate. (1985, 1989) exposed female Long-Evans weanling rats (13 per dose group) to barium chloride in drinking water at concentrations of 0, 1, 10 or 100 ppm for 1–16 months. An increase in mean systolic blood pressure was observed in the 10 ppm group at 8–16 months. Finally, several studies found that oral exposure to barium did not significantly increase tumour incidence. Environment Monitoring Systems Laboratories, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. Res./Gen. Barium also reacts with water and with most acids. Coal can contain barium in concentrations of up to 3,000 mg/kg (WHO, 2001; ATSDR, 2007). and Mitchener, M. (1975b). No external abnormalities were observed in the offspring. Based on the CTDS data collected between 1993 and 2010 from nine Canadian cities (St. John’s, Halifax, Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Winnipeg, Calgary,Vancouver, and Whitehorse), the average dietary exposures to barium expressed on a body weight basis were estimated to be 12.4–27.7 µg/kg bw per day for infants aged 0–6 months, 16.6–26.6 µg/kg bw per day for children 7 months to 4 years old, 14.5–19.9 µg/kg bw per day for 5- to 11-year-olds, 9–12.4 µg/kg bw per day for 12- to 19-year-olds, and 5.1–10.1 µg/kg bw per day for persons aged 20 and above. Other agencies have concluded that there is no evidence that barium is carcinogenic via the oral route (IPCS, 2001; WHO, 2016). Environ. Paired samples of source and treated water should be taken to confirm the efficacy of the treatment or control option. BARIUM FACT SHEET ON A DRINKING WATER CHEMICAL CONTAMINANT GENERAL INFORMATION Synonyms • None Chemical Description: • Naturally occurring chemical, typically found as an inorganic salt Properties: • Exists in nature only in combined forms, [e g Bante • (BaSO4)] • Solubility of barium salts is compound specific • Mineral forms have very low vapor … Chemical precipitation can also be used as a pretreatment or intermediate treatment in membrane systems to reduce the potential for scaling/fouling of membranes by mineral salts.
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