[9][3] The term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by terrorist groups. "[78] Even when the Ottoman Empire carried on a new holy war of expansion in the seventeenth century, "the war was not universally pursued". 17, Issue 2, 2005, pp. BIBLIOGRAPHY. ... ruler, after consultation with specialists and consultants. Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ) allied with the al-Qaeda network in the late 1990s, and the two groups merged in 2001. Van Slooten, Pippi. [168], Shia Muslim scholar Mahmoud M. Ayoud states that "The goal of true jihad is to attain a harmony between Islam (submission), iman (faith), and ihsan (righteous living)." Jihad is an Arabic term meaning, as a noun, “ struggle ” or, as a verb, “ to exert effort ” toward a goal. Also influential was the Egyptian Islamist and theorist Muhammad abd-al-Salam Faraj, who wrote the pamphlet Al-Farida al-gha'iba ("The Neglected Duty"). Take advantage of our Presidents' Day bonus! If non-Muslims were waging a "war against Islam", jihad against them was not offensive but defensive. [...] According to Muhajir, committing suicide to kill people is not only a theologically sound act, but a commendable one, too, something to be cherished and celebrated regardless of its outcome. It has been described as a "difficult term to define precisely", because it remains a recent neologism with no single, generally accepted meaning. [7][8] In Sufi and pious circles, spiritual and moral jihad has been traditionally emphasized under the name of greater jihad. In summary, Muslims do not have to stop an attack on mushrikeen, if non-fighting women and children are present.[120]. Today it is certain that no Muslim, writing in a non-Western language (such as Arabic, Persian, Urdu), would ever make claims that jihad is primarily nonviolent or has been superseded by the spiritual jihad. [76], Bernard Lewis states that while most Islamic theologians in the classical period (750–1258 CE) understood jihad to be a military endeavor,[77] after Islamic conquest stagnated and the caliphate broke up into smaller states the "irresistible and permanent jihad came to an end". "[17], Middle East historian Bernard Lewis argues that in the Quran "jihad ... has usually been understood as meaning 'to wage war'",[194] that for most of the recorded history of Islam, "from the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad onward", jihad was used in a primarily military sense,[195] and that "the overwhelming majority of classical theologians, jurists, and traditionalists" (i.e. … In both popular and scholarly literature, jihad is primarily assumed to be a monovalent concept referring to “military/armed combat,” and martyrdom (shahada) is inevitably understood to be of the military kind. In what is probably the most standard collection of hadith, Sahih al-Bukhari, "the 199 references to jihad all assume that jihad means warfare. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. [67], In the early era that inspired classical Islam (Rashidun Caliphate) and lasted less than a century, jihad spread the realm of Islam to include millions of subjects, and an area extending "from the borders of India and China to the Pyrenees and the Atlantic". In this way victory will be achieved through the hands of the believers by means of God's [intervention]. [citation needed], The role of religion in these early conquests is debated. Over time, other religious groups, including Zoroastrians, Hindus, and Buddhists, also came to be considered “protected communities” and were given rights similar to those of Christians and Jews. [123] CIA also funded Azzam's Maktab al-Khidamat[124] and others via Operation Cyclone. [83] Wars against colonialist powers were often declared to be jihad: the Senussi religious order declared jihad against Italian control of Libya in 1912, and the "Mahdi" in the Sudan declared jihad against both the British and the Egyptians in 1881.[59]. [17] The terminology is also applied to the fight for women's liberation. He did not himself take part in military expeditions, but he appointed commanders, encouraged the army, handled diplomatic questions, and wrote widely…. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the names of many militant groups included the word "jihad": Some conflicts fought as jihad since the 1980s include: Controversy has arisen over whether the usage of the term jihad without further explanation refers to military combat, and whether some have used confusion over the definition of the term to their advantage. when the enemy surrenders or flees). In Jihad in Islamic History, Michael Bonner provides the first study in English that focuses on the early history of jihad, shedding much-needed light on the most recent controversies over jihad. Between 1982 and 1992 an estimated 35,000 individual Muslim volunteers went to Afghanistan to fight the Soviets and their Afghan regime. Furthermore, the jurists forbade attacks on civilians and destruction of property, citing statements by the Prophet Muhammad. Jihad is an important concept for Muslims. The way that Muhajir theorized it was simple—he offered up a theological fix that allows any who desire it to sidestep the Koranic injunctions against suicide. [163][164][165][166], Hanbali scholar Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya believed that "internal Jihad" is important[167] but suggests those hadith which consider "Jihad of the heart/soul" to be more important than "Jihad by the sword", are weak. They believe it can incorporate both military and non-military aspects. [129], At least one important contemporary Twelver Shia figure, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the Iranian Revolution and the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, wrote a treatise on the "Greater Jihad" (i.e., internal/personal struggle against sin).[131]. ... Their aim is purely political – to create havoc and chaos in the world. 42 From these ideas, it can be seen that western scholars are in different understanding about the meaning of jihad. rare a crusade in support of a … Under Abdul Malik's leadership the group partly seized control of the country initiating a civil war in Yemen, causing the Yemeni government to request assistance from Saudi Arabia to fight the Houthis in 2015. The … In Lebanon, Kuwait, Jordan, and Morocco, the most frequent responses included references to "duty toward God", a "divine duty", or a "worship of God", with no militaristic connotations. Corrections? [134] Between 1918 and 1919 in the Shia holy city of Najaf the League of the Islamic Awakening was established by several religious scholars, tribal chiefs, and landlords assassinated a British officer in the hopes of sparking a similar rebellion in Karbala which is also regarded as sacred for Shias. [92][93][94] Such struggle involves all of one ’ s power and resources, as one seeks to “ command right and … [187][need quotation to verify] However, according to the majority of jurists, the Qur'anic casus belli (justifications for war) are restricted to aggression against Muslims,[188][189] and fitna—persecution of Muslims because of their religious belief. [citation needed][72] The historian Hamilton Gibb states that "in the historic [Muslim] Community the concept of jihad had gradually weakened and at length it had been largely reinterpreted in terms of Sufi ethics. Traditionally, Twelver Shi'a doctrine has differed from that of Sunni Islam on the concept of jihad, with jihad being "seen as a lesser priority" in Shia theology and "armed activism" by Shias being "limited to a person's immediate geography". Such claims are made solely by Western scholars, primarily those who study Sufism and/or work in interfaith dialogue, and by Muslim apologists who are trying to present Islam in the most innocuous manner possible. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). [citation needed], In the 20th century, many Islamist groups appeared, being strongly influenced by the social frustrations following the economic crises of the 1970s and 1980s. Submitting to political realism, however, many premodern Muslim jurists went on to permit wars of expansion in order to extend Muslim rule over non-Muslim realms. Because of their history of being oppressed, Shias also associated jihad with certain passionate features, notably in the remembrance of Ashura. He said: "The best jihad is the one in which your horse is slain and your blood is spilled. [69] Many modern historians question whether hunger and desertification, rather than jihad, was a motivating force in the conquests. Jihad (English: /dʒɪˈhɑːd/; Arabic: جهاد jihād [dʒɪˈhaːd]) is an Arabic word which literally means striving or struggling, especially with a praiseworthy aim. specialists in hadith) also "understood the obligation of jihad in a military sense. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. The hadith does not appear in any of the authoritative collections, and according to the Muslim Jurist Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, the source of the quote is unreliable: This saying is widespread and it is a saying by Ibrahim ibn Ablah according to Nisa'i in al-Kuna. [79][better source needed], When the Ottoman caliph called for a "Great Jihad" by all Muslims against Allied powers during World War I, there were hopes and fears that non-Turkish Muslims would side with Ottoman Turkey, but the appeal did not "[unite] the Muslim world",[78][80] and Muslims did not turn on their non-Muslim commanders in the Allied forces. In the modern era, the notion of jihad has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead given rise to an ideological and political discourse. [202], Distinction between the "greater" and "lesser" jihad, Other spiritual, social, economic struggles, For a listing of all appearances in the Qur'an of jihad and related words, see, The early Muslim era of expansion (632–750 CE, or the. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. [139], In 2004 the Shiite Houthi Movement, also known as Ansar Allah, began an insurgency in northern Yemen against the Yemeni government led by Ali Abdullah Saleh. [10], The context of the Quran is elucidated by Hadith (the teachings, deeds and sayings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad). They believe it means to struggle, or to strive. Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, who was originally part of Osama bin Laden ’s al Qaeda Network, founded this militant group. ", "Fighting and warfare might sometimes be necessary, but it was only a minor part of the whole jihad or struggle," according to, "Jihad is a propagandistic device which, as need be, resorts to armed struggle—two ingredients common to many ideological movements," according to, The International Islamic Front for the Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders: (. A poll by Gallup showed that a "significant majority" of Muslim Indonesians define the term to mean "sacrificing one's life for the sake of Islam/God/a just cause" or "fighting against the opponents of Islam". A charismatic speaker, Azzam traveled to dozens of cities in Europe and North American to encourage support for jihad in Afghanistan. The term 'jihad' has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. [6] In classical Islamic law, the term refers to armed struggle against unbelievers,[2][3] while modernist Islamic scholars generally equate military jihad with defensive warfare. According to Jonathan Berkey, the Quran's statements in support of jihad may have originally been directed against Muhammad's local enemies, the pagans of Mecca or the Jews of Medina, but these same statements could be redirected once new enemies appeared. Nicola Melis, "A Hanafi treatise on rebellion and ğihād in the Ottoman age (XVII c.)", in, Suhas Majumdar: Jihad: The Islamic Doctrine of Permanent War; New Delhi, July 1994, This page was last edited on 4 January 2021, at 01:50. [63] Such rules offered protection for civilians. [47][48] The second/eighth century jurist Sufyan al-Thawri (d. 161/778) headed what Khadduri calls a pacifist school, which maintained that jihad was only a defensive war. It is only a saying of Ibrahim Ibn Abi `Abalah, one of the Successors, and it contradicts textual evidence and reality. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. It refers to struggling against evil, either as an individual or as the collective fellowship of Islam. [138], According to The National, this changed with the Syrian Civil War, where, "for the first time in the history of Shia Islam, adherents are seeping into another country to fight in a holy war to defend their doctrine. "[52] (This was designed in part to avoid incidents like the Kharijia's jihad against and killing of Caliph Ali, since they deemed that he was no longer a Muslim). "They emphasize more the moral justifications and the underlying ethical values of the rules, than the detailed elaboration of those rules." jizya. Unfortunately, terrorists often invoke the Islamic concept of “Jihad” to justify their crimes. The reference stated that Jabir said, "We have returned from the lesser jihad (al-jihad al-asghar) to the greater jihad (al-jihad al-akbar)." It's a concept within Islam that represents a commitment to serve … "Economic" Jihad (good doing involving money such as spending within one's means, helping the "poor and the downtrodden"), "As used in this First Superseding Indictment, 'Jihad' is the Arabic word meaning 'holy war'. Jihad is obligatory – fard in Islam – on ALL Muslims. In their articulation of international law, classical Muslim jurists were primarily concerned with issues of state security and military defense of Islamic realms, and, accordingly, they focused primarily on jihad as a military duty, which became the predominant meaning in legal and official literature. Warfare is only one interpretation of the concept of jihad. [60], Classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence often contained a section called Book of Jihad, with rules governing the conduct of war covered at great length. [citation needed], By the start of the revolt itself in 1920, Grand Ayatollah Muhammad Taqi Shirazi the father of Mohammad al-Husayni al-Shirazi and grandfather of Sadiq Hussaini Shirazi, declared through a Fatwa, that it was not permissible or acceptable for Muslims to be ruled by non-Muslims and called for Jihad against European powers in the Middle East. "[146], Islamic theologian Abu Abdullah al-Muhajir has been identified as the key theorist and ideologue behind modern jihadist violence. Military and intelligent analyst Sebastian Gorka described the new interpretation of jihad as the "willful targeting of civilians by a non-state actor through unconventional means. "[188][190] The Hanafī jurists al-Shaybānī and al-Sarakhsī state that "although kufr [unbelief in God] is one of the greatest sins, it is between the individual and his God the Almighty and the punishment for this sin is to be postponed to the dār al-jazā’, (the abode of reckoning, the Hereafter)."[188][191]. [90] The group called for jihad against the new state of Israel in the 1940s,[91] and its Palestinian branch, Hamas, called for jihad against Israel when the First Intifada started. The Messenger of Allah was asked about the best jihad. By 657 the Persian empire was conquered and by 661 the Byzantine empire was reduced to a fraction of its former size. jihad | Meaning, Examples, & Use in the Quran | Britannica Jihad in classical and modern Islam : a reader Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item. During and since that time, Islamist extremists have used the rubric of jihad to justify violent attacks against Muslims whom they accuse of apostasy. He assesses that jihadists regard their actions as being "for the greater good"; that they are in a "weakened in the earth" situation that renders terrorism a valid means of solution.[154]. ", "Libya's Gaddafi urges 'holy war' against Switzerland", "Protestors lose their fear of the Egyptian regime and perform the best jihad – the word of justice in front of the oppressive ruler", "Armed Jihad in the Islamic Legal Tradition", "Dynamics of Islamic Jihad, Spoils of War", "Article eight of the Hamas Covenant. Mahmoud M. Ayoub says: In Islamic tradition jihad or the struggle in the way of God, whether as armed struggle, or any form of opposition of the wrong, is generally regarded as one of the essential requirements of a person's faith as a Muslim. [46] Muslims jurists of the eighth century developed a paradigm of international relations that divides the world into three conceptual divisions, dar al-Islam/dar al-‛adl/dar al-salam (house of Islam/house of justice/house of peace), dar al-harb/dar al-jawr (house of war/house of injustice, oppression), and dar al-sulh/dar al-‛ahd/dār al-muwada‛ah (house of peace/house of covenant/house of reconciliation). For the early community it was a basic religious concept. Though frequently invoked, jihad had little effect on political behavior in the pre-modern Islamic world. Jihad, (Arabic: “struggle” or “effort”) also spelled jehad, in Islam, a meritorious struggle or effort. [198], Cook argued that "Presentations along these lines are ideological in tone and should be discounted for their bias and deliberate ignorance of the subject" and that it "is no longer acceptable for Western scholars or Muslim apologists writing in non-Muslim languages to make flat, unsupported statements concerning the prevalence—either from a historical point of view or within contemporary Islam—of the spiritual jihad. He also insisted that Christians and Jews were mushrikeen (not monotheists) because (he alleged) gave their priests or rabbis "authority to make laws, obeying laws which were made by them [and] not permitted by God" and "obedience to laws and judgments is a sort of worship".[107][108]. "[70] Some recent explanations cite both material and religious causes in the conquests. This assumption facilitates the discussion of jihad and martyrdom as terms with fixed, universal meanings divorced from the varying sociopolitical contexts in which they have been … [1][2], In Modern Standard Arabic, the term jihad is used for a struggle for causes, both religious and secular. [31], According to Ahmed al-Dawoody, seventeen derivatives of jihād occur altogether forty-one times in eleven Meccan texts and thirty Medinan ones, with the following five meanings: striving because of religious belief (21), war (12), non-Muslim parents exerting pressure, that is, jihād, to make their children abandon Islam (2), solemn oaths (5), and physical strength (1). Abandoning it means losing entirely or partially both kinds of happiness.`[104], The highly influential Muslim Brotherhood leader, Sayyid Qutb, preached in his book Milestones that jihad, `is not a temporary phase but a permanent war ... Jihad for freedom cannot cease until the Satanic forces are put to an end and the religion is purified for God in toto.`[105][106] Like Ibn Taymiyya, Qutb focused on martyrdom and jihad, but he added the theme of the treachery and enmity towards Islam of Christians and especially Jews. Unless there was a sudden attack on the Muslim community, jihad was not a "personal obligation" (fard ayn); instead it was a "collective one" (fard al-kifaya),[67] which had to be discharged "in the way of God" (fi sabil Allah),[149] and it could only be directed by the caliph, "whose discretion over its conduct was all but absolute. There are 2 elements to jihad: greater jihad and lesser jihad [16][9] Most Western writers consider external jihad to have primacy over inner jihad in the Islamic tradition, while much of contemporary Muslim opinion favors the opposite view. "[147], The first or the "classical" doctrine of jihad which was developed towards the end of the 8th century, emphasized the jihad of the sword (jihad bil-saif) rather than the "jihad of the heart",[148] but it contained many legal restrictions which were developed from interpretations of both the Quran and the Hadith, such as detailed rules involving "the initiation, the conduct, the termination" of jihad, the treatment of prisoners, the distribution of booty, etc. "[30] It is sometimes used without religious connotation, with a meaning similar to the English word "crusade" (as in "a crusade against drugs"). Violence is the last option only to be used to protect religion and one's own life in extreme situations of persecution. "Intellectual" Jihad (very similar to missionary jihad). [133], Jihad has been called for by Shia Islamists in the 20th century, notably Ruhollah Khomeini declared jihad on Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War, and the Shia bombers of Western embassies and peacekeeping troops in Lebanon called themselves, "Islamic Jihad". There could be truces before this was achieved, but no permanent peace. Islam a holy war against infidels undertaken by Muslims in defence of the Islamic faith. Instead recent distortions and even total reversal of the meaning of jihad as understood over the ages by Muslims have made it more difficult than ever before to gain insight into this ... As a result the practice of jihad as applied to the world of multiplicity and the vicissitudes of human existence in the external world has come to develop numerous ramifications in the fields of political and economic activity and in … Hadia Dajani-Shakeel and Ronald Messier (1991). [28] In the Qur'an and in later Muslim usage, jihad is commonly followed by the expression fi sabil illah, "in the path of God. [136][137], After the 2003 invasion of Iraq a number of Sunni and Shiite armed group emerged, including Kataib Hezbollah, the Mehdi Army led by Shiite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr, and the Soldiers of Heaven led by Dia Abdul Zahra Kadim, who also claimed to be the returning Mehdi. Jihad in the West attempts to describe the history of Islamic and European conflict over 1,500 years, including moments such as the climactic battle at Tours (if the Moors had won it in 732, much of Europe might be Muslim today), the sieges of Vienna, and the Barbary Corsairs (the battle U.S. Marines refer to when they sing about "the shores of Tripoli"). However, depending on social and political circumstances, Jihad may be regarded as a sixth fundamental obligation (farid) incumbent on the entire Muslim community (ummah) when their integrity is in danger, in this case jihad becomes an "absolute obligation" (fard 'ayn), or when social and religious reform is gravely hampered. "[198], In Ahmadiyya Islam, jihad is primarily one's personal inner struggle and should not be used violently for political motives. …on earth, the doctrine of jihad is the logical outcome. special tax … The concept of Jihad in Islam is one of the topics that causes the most confusion and is surrounded by a loud cacophony aiming at equating Jihad with mass murder and random shooting sprees. History of Islam - What is Jihad? They were also respectively called al-jihād al-akbar (the greater jihad) and al-jihād al-aṣghar (the lesser jihad). ", "As used in this Superseding Indictment, 'violent jihad' or 'jihad' include planning, preparing for, and engaging in, acts of physical violence, including murder, maiming, kidnapping, and hostage-taking. [11][12] Islamic jurists and other ulama of the classical era understood the obligation of jihad predominantly in a military sense. Azzam issued a fatwa calling for jihad against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, declaring it an individual obligation for all able bodied Muslims because it was a defensive jihad to repel invaders. [110][111] Although Faraj was executed in 1982 for his part in the assassination of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat, his pamphlet and ideas were highly influential, at least among Egyptian Islamist extremist groups. These were overturned by the popular war hero Mustafa Kemal, who was also a secularist and later abolished the caliphate. [74] Earlier classical works on fiqh emphasized jihad as war for God's religion, Peters found. The exceptional veteran actor Naseeruddin Shah has fearlessly put forward his opinion on how well-thought efforts being undertaken to create a divide between Hindus and Muslims in the name of 'love jihad'. [42] [125] The defeat of the Soviets in Afghanistan is said to have "amplified the jihadist tendency from a fringe phenomenon to a major force in the Muslim world. These writings tended to be less interested and involved with legal arguments, what the different of schools of Islamic law had to say, or in solutions for all potential situations. [17], Jihad is sometimes referred to as the sixth pillar of Islam, though this designation is not commonly recognized. [169] According to Ayoud the greatest Jihad is the struggle of every Muslim against the social, moral, and political evils. According to the legal historian Sadarat Kadri,[145] during the last couple of centuries, incremental changes in Islamic legal doctrine (developed by Islamists who otherwise condemn any bid‘ah (innovation) in religion), have "normalized" what was once "unthinkable". The Wahhabi movement which spread across the Arabian peninsula starting in the 18th century, emphasized jihad as armed struggle. [44], According with Bernard Lewis, "from an early date Muslim law laid down" jihad in the military sense as "one of the principal obligations" of both "the head of the Muslim state", who declared the jihad, and the Muslim community. Jihadism (also known as jihadist movement, jihadi movement, and variants) is a 21st-century neologism found in Western languages to describe militant Islamic movements perceived as "existentially threatening" to the West and "rooted in political Islam". Learn more about the world with our collection of regional and country maps. Learn more. The jurists gave special consideration to those who professed belief in a divine revelation—Christians and Jews in particular, who are described as “People of the Book” in the Qurʾān and are therefore regarded as communities to be protected by the Muslim ruler. The Arabic term jihad has primarily come to mean “armed struggle/combat” and is frequently translated into English as “holy war.” But a close scrutiny of the occurrence of this term in the Qur’an and in early hadith literature demonstrates that this exclusive understanding of the term cannot be supported for the earliest period of Islam (roughly mid‐seventh through the late eighth centuries). According to scholar of Islam and Islamic history Rudoph Peters, in the contemporary Muslim world. The Afghan wars of the late 20th and early 21st centuries (see Afghan War; Afghanistan War) were also viewed by many participants as jihads, first against the Soviet Union and Afghanistan’s Marxist government and later against the United States. [132], Hence, the concept of jihad (holy struggle) gained a deeper and more personal meaning. According to another scholar (Majid Khadduri), it was the shift in focus to the conquest and spoils collecting of non-Bedouin unbelievers and away from traditional inter-bedouin tribal raids, that may have made it possible for Islam not only to expand but to avoid self-destruction. In February 1998, Osama bin Laden put a "Declaration of the World Islamic Front for Jihad against the Jews and the Crusaders" in the Al-Quds al-Arabi newspaper. [144], Some observers[145][146] have noted the evolution in the rules of jihad—from the original "classical" doctrine to that of 21st century Salafi jihadism. [114], In the 1980s the Muslim Brotherhood cleric Abdullah Azzam, sometimes called "the father of the modern global jihad",[115] opened the possibility of successfully waging jihad against unbelievers in the here and now. [122] Saudi Arabia and the other conservative Gulf monarchies also provided considerable financial support to the jihad—$600 million a year by 1982. Shiite Jihadists in Afghanistan were known as the Tehran Eight and received support from the Iranian government in fighting against the Communist Afghan government and allied Soviet forces in Afghanistan. In the Medinan period (622–632), during which Muhammad received Qurʾānic revelations at Medina, a new dimension of jihad emerged: fighting in self-defense against the aggression of the Meccan persecutors, termed qitāl. [54] (Another source—Bernard Lewis—states that fighting rebels and bandits was legitimate though not a form of jihad,[55] and that while the classical perception and presentation of the jihad was warfare in the field against a foreign enemy, internal jihad "against an infidel renegade, or otherwise illegitimate regime was not unknown. Jihad in the World Today For the millions of mainstream Muslims who live in the world today, these concepts of jihad haven't changed. [172] In a commentary of the hadith Sahih Muslim, entitled al-Minhaj, the medieval Islamic scholar Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi stated that "one of the collective duties of the community as a whole (fard kifaya) is to lodge a valid protest, to solve problems of religion, to have knowledge of Divine Law, to command what is right and forbid wrong conduct".[173]. [17] Gallup's Richard Burkholder concludes from these results that the concept of jihad among Muslims "is considerably more nuanced than the single sense in which Western commentators invariably invoke the term. [40][41], The practice of periodic raids by Bedouins against enemy tribes and settlements to collect spoils predates the revelations of the Quran. For the early community it was a basic religious concept. [14][15] Aside from its use of the term “jihad” in its generic meaning in the two verses above, the Qur’an uses “jihad” in another twenty eight verses in a specific meaning. [112] (In 1993, for example, 1106 persons were killed or wounded in terror attacks in Egypt.
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